Introversion vs. Extroversion - Parameters and Psychopathology

G. Allport correctly explains that temperament represents the primary material, alongside intelligence and physical constitution, from which personality is built. As described by Vl. Norakidze, temperament expresses the characteristics of a person's emotional excitability, impressionability, intensity of emotions, depth, and impulsivity. D. Uznadze expands on this idea, noting that temperament represents emotional disposition, although it is often understood as a broader concept: in it, they perceive the disposition of all mental properties of the individual.

Psychotherapeutic practice shows that introverts seek psychotherapy more often than extroverts. Is their level of neuroticism higher than that of extroverts? This fact may depend on the characteristics of the types. When individuality is unappreciated in society and extroversion is considered the "correct" way of being human, an introvert is often already burdened by their very existence. Likewise, when a person lacks self-control, psychoregulation, psycho-hygiene, and reflection, this can become a problem for both an introvert and an extrovert. However, extroverts, with their expressiveness and active communication, seem more capable of emotional discharge and distraction, which cannot be said about introverts. The latter are oriented towards their inner world and are more closed types who cannot redirect their attention to other people and the environment or express emotions to the same degree. The presence of hetero-aggression and higher self-esteem in extroverts, compared to more pronounced auto-aggression, static mindset, and lower self-esteem in introverts, appears to create a significant source making neuroticism more troublesome for introverts.

We often encounter memes, photos, and opinions on social networks where extroverts appear as regular people, while introverts are presented as negative, sullen, scared individuals who do not answer the phone, are terrified by its ring, are covered with a blanket, or hide under the bed as if danger is everywhere. Such views are, of course, exaggerated. An introvert is an ordinary person sociable, with a sense of humor, who laughs, jokes, and enjoys themselves though compared to an extrovert, their coefficient of socialization and expression is lower. As for the myth that an introvert hides in a corner, this corresponds more to an introvert with high neuroticism who may have specific symptoms or a disorder.

It is worth noting that H. Eysenck initially identified two dimensions: Introversion-Extroversion and Neuroticism-Stability. The Neuroticism-Stability scale relates to the emotional factor of a person. Individuals with a high score on the neuroticism scale are characterized by strong emotional reactions to life events of average intensity, whereas more stable individuals remain more or less emotionally indifferent to the same events. The latter exhibit strong emotional reactions appropriately, only in response to strong stimuli. A person with high levels of neuroticism frequently experiences mood swings; is indecisive, nervous, anxious, and restless; worries often, cannot cope with stress, has somatic complaints, etc. An emotionally stable personality, on the other hand, is calm, reserved, stable, displays balanced actions, and acts appropriately for the ambient situation. Neuroticism is associated with rapid excitability, emotional instability, social maladjustment, lack of self-control, a low capacity to cope with psychological stress, and a tendency toward complaining and dissatisfaction. People with low levels of neuroticism are distinguished by emotional stability and lower reactivity to stress. They tend to exhibit calmness and a low intensity of negative emotions, though they do not necessarily display a high intensity of positive emotions. The latter is characteristic of extroverts, who are more inclined toward positive emotions and a higher intensity of those emotions, whereas introverts are not. Introverts do not express high-intensity positive emotions, but a stable introvert is balanced and calm, and emotions of both polarities may manifest in them with moderate intensity.

According to H. Eysenck, a high score on the neuroticism scale does not mean that one is necessarily dealing with a neurosis; however, people with high scores on the neuroticism scale are more vulnerable to developing a neurosis in stressful situations than those with low scores. It is notable that a high level of neuroticism can manifest in a wide spectrum of disorders or neurotic symptoms. In this case, what matters is that the problem already exists, and the form in which it manifests is subjective, depending on individual characteristics as well as psychological and socio-cultural factors.

In literature, we sometimes find certain theoretical or experimental data suggesting that introverts are considered neurotic types, whereas extroverts are characterized by low neuroticism. Notably, according to our research, there is no statistically significant difference between extroverts and introverts in terms of neuroticism. Our theoretical and experimental view regarding the distinct identity of these types is supported by Eysenck's factor-analytical technique itself, which assumes the independence of the types; that is, the neuroticism axis is positioned at a right angle to the extroversion axis, meaning their correlation is equal to zero, and they are not statistically dependent on each other. Based on this, people can be conditionally divided into 4 groups. Different people may have the same score on the N (Neuroticism) scale, but display completely different symptoms depending on their score on the Extroversion-Introversion scale.

A person who is simultaneously stable and introverted tends to follow norms and rules, is relatively slow, deliberate, less expressive, more oriented toward the inner world, and is distinguished by high responsibility and strong focus, as well as being caring and attentive. The combination of neuroticism and introversion manifests as anxiety, pessimism, and withdrawal. For introverts with high neuroticism, there is a higher risk of developing anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, and phobias, as well as personality disorders such as schizoid, schizotypal, and avoidant personality disorders.

It is worth noting that an introvert has a higher sensitivity to the fear of punishment compared to an extrovert. An introvert tries harder to receive fewer reprimands, avoid frustration, and escape punishment. Since an introvert has higher cortical arousal, they process environmental stimuli more rapidly and intensely. They learn and form conditioned responses faster than extroverts. Before extroverts even manage to perceive a fear-inducing situation, introverts have already perceived it and prepared their response to it. Because an introvert fears punishment, they also internalize social norms more easily and break them less often. For example, an introvert learns easier and faster than an extrovert that one should not cross the street on a red light.

Combining extroversion and stability leads to care and sociability; such individuals are quicker, faster, louder, more positive, and characterized by high emotional expression. On the other hand, extroverts with high neuroticism will be aggressive, impulsive, and easily excited. People with high levels of both extroversion and neuroticism are at risk for antisocial behaviors, criminal tendencies, hysteria, and narcissistic disorder.

Incidentally, Jung considered hysteria and schizophrenia to be polar diseases. A person with hysteria expresses intensely strong emotions, while a person suffering from schizophrenia is indifferent to the environment. In the first case, excessive emotionality is expressed, whereas in the second, apathy is shown. Jung states that we can call these two directions of libido movement extroversion and introversion.

Studies confirm that extroverts begin their sexual lives at an earlier age, engage in sex more frequently, and change partners more often than introverts. Introverts engage in masturbation more frequently than extroverts. In family relationships, introverts are also warmer toward their partners and trust them more than extroverts do, while also deserving greater trust themselves. It was found that extroverts have an above-average number of children; they face a higher risk of infectious diseases; and they get involved in conflicts and receive severe injuries or wounds more frequently. The probability of family breakdown and infidelity is lower among introverts compared to extroverts; introverts prove to be more reliable, loyal, and understanding partners and friends.

As mentioned, H. Eysenck initially identified two dimensions: Introversion-Extroversion and Neuroticism-Stability. Later, he added a third dimension: Psychoticism-Strong Superego. In his view, psychoticism is a genetic predisposition for a person to develop a psychotic or psychopathic personality. Eysenck viewed psychoticism as a personality continuum on which all people can be placed, and it is more pronounced in men than in women. This fact can be supported by the 1980 clinical experiment by Norwegian psychologist Dan Olweus and his colleagues, where the aggressiveness component of psychoticism was found to be linked to biologically determined, elevated testosterone levels.

For a person to function effectively in society, they must possess a system of values, norms, and ethics that reasonably align with what is accepted in their environment. All of this is formed during the process of socialization in the language of psychoanalysis's structural model, through the formation of the Superego.

The Superego represents an internalized version of societal norms and standards of behavior. According to S. Freud, as the moral-ethical force of personality, the Superego emerges when a child learns to distinguish between "right" and "wrong," and what is "good" and "bad" (roughly between 3 to 5 years of age). Initially, the Superego reflects only the parents' expectations regarding what constitutes bad or good behavior. Through each action, the child learns to act in accordance with these norms to avoid punishment and conflict. Later, as the child's social world expands (school, religion, etc.), the domain of the Superego broadens to include behaviors considered acceptable by these groups. The Superego can be viewed as an individualized expression of society's "collective conscience."

Freud divided the Superego into two subsystems: the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience consists of expressions of parental punishment. It is tied to parental actions reacting to what parents call "disobedient behaviors" for which the child receives reprimands. The conscience implies the capacity for critical self-evaluation and feelings of guilt in the child when they fail to do what they should have, or vice versa. The positive, rewarding aspect of the Superego is the ego-ideal. It is formed from what parents praise and hold in high regard, driving the individual to set high standards for themselves. Achieving these goals leads to self-satisfaction and a sense of pride. For example, a child who is praised for academic success will always take pride in their academic achievements. The Superego is considered fully formed when parental control is replaced by self-control.

In short, it is precisely through the power of the Superego that a person possesses morality, ethics, conscience, feelings of guilt, empathy, compassion, and the ability to understand, consider, and connect with others. According to Eysenck's PEN model, a strong Superego sits on one end of the continuum, while psychoticism stands at the opposite pole of these characteristics.

H. Eysenck discovered that psychoticism is produced by a combination of a certain number of personality traits. Those who score high on the psychoticism scale are often characterized by aggressiveness, egocentrism, lack of emotion, impulsivity, antisocial behavior, lack of empathy, creativity, and stubbornness. A high score on this scale does not automatically mean a person is psychotic, though it does not rule out the possibility of them becoming so later. They simply possess characteristics observed in psychotic patients.

Introverts with high psychoticism are generally characterized by rigid, harsh, relentless thinking, non-conformity, a tendency toward solitude, and emotional distance. They lack empathy and show a cold, distant, or indifferent attitude toward others' feelings, customs, and approval. They may hold a sharp, cynical view of people, making them prone to conflictual or harsh interactions when forced to socialize. Unlike standard introverts who enjoy deep connections with a small, trusted circle, individuals with this trait often exhibit introverted anhedonia a reduced ability to derive pleasure from social connections or physical proximity.

Introverts with high levels of psychoticism are at greater risk for disorders such as schizoid and schizotypal personality disorders, antisocial personality disorder, psychopathy, schizophrenia, as well as severe depression with melancholia and anhedonia. Of course, depression is linked to neuroticism, but an introvert with high psychoticism is prone to a particularly severe, detached form of depression. Neurotic depression is characterized by deep sadness, crying spells, visible suffering, guilt, anhedonia, and despair. The person feels unworthy of love yet still desires connection with people, which often manifests in seeking constant validation and support from others. In contrast, depression driven by psychoticism is detached and aggressive. It is marked by an absence of crying and typical sadness, manifesting instead through severe anhedonia and feelings of emptiness and exhaustion. Rather than seeking comfort, the person withdraws into hostile isolation. They reject help, view others cynically, and become extremely harsh and defensive if forced into social interaction.

Extroverts with high psychoticism stand in sharp contrast to their introverted counterparts. While introverts with this trait withdraw into cold isolation, extroverts direct their high psychoticism straight into the social world.

In Hans Eysenck's PEN model, this combination pairs a powerful need for social stimulation, high energy, and sensation-seeking (extroversion) with emotional detachment, hostility, impulsivity, and a total disregard for social norms (high psychoticism).

Extroverts with high psychoticism are socially bold, talkative, and confident, yet they use these skills to dominate social situations. Since they lack empathy, they often view other people merely as tools for personal gain, entertainment, or exploitation. They have a very high threshold for excitement and a low tolerance for boredom. They actively seek out risky, dangerous, or illegal activities (gambling, extreme pranks) and enjoy dragging others into these situations. Unlike standard extroverts who wish to be liked by others, these individuals do not care about social approval. They are extremely contentious, love creating chaos, and deliberately provoke confrontations, engage in conflict, or violate people's boundaries just to see their reactions, driven by interest, pleasure, and dominance. When they wish to be, they can be highly charismatic, witty, and socially persuasive. However, this charm is superficial and often masks a cold, cynical, and manipulative nature.

In a professional environment, an extrovert with high psychoticism is often a ruthless competitor. Such a person might be a hyper-aggressive sales agent, a ruthless corporate figure, or a politician. They possess the social energy to climb high hierarchies but lack moral standards or emotional boundaries to care about whom they hurt on their path to success. For them, the main goal is power and dominance; thus, all their acts to achieve this success are justified and rationalized.

An extrovert with high psychoticism may be prone to disorders such as antisocial personality disorder / psychopathy, where extroversion drives their charm and social boldness, while psychoticism drives their cruelty, lack of remorse, and criminal tendencies. In narcissistic personality disorder, the extroverted demand for attention and status merges with the hostile, cold, and vindictive nature of high psychoticism. In conduct disorders among children and adolescents, individuals with this profile are often highly aggressive, bully peers, openly defy authority, and initiate fights themselves.

Therefore, such information about personality types is important for psychotherapists and mental health professionals to utilize, as it provides material regarding expectations for different types and appropriate individual approaches. A specific psychotherapist may work within one specific modality, but having information about the characteristics, expectations, and risks of personality types allows us to approach patients individually. It enables us to draw the line between normality and pathology according to each specific person, regarding as normal for a given type what is characteristic of it and aligns with the natural flow of their temperament. While specific symptoms may subside and a person may recover from a specific disorder, the basic characteristics of introversion-extroversion do not change; within normal variation, typology remains constant, and temperament does not require treatment it is a natural given.

Tamar Merabishvili - Psychologist, Psychotherapist, MSc, PhD, Director of the Psychophysiological Rehabilitation Center "Arsi"